Home  ›  according to the critical thinking model, what is the first step in analyzing an issue?

according to the critical thinking model, what is the first step in analyzing an issue?

Written By Monday, April 11, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Analysis of facts to class a judgment

Critical thinking is the analysis of bachelor facts, evidence, observations, and arguments to form a judgment.[1] The subject is complex; several dissimilar definitions be, which by and large include the rational, skeptical, and unbiased analysis or evaluation of factual evidence. Critical thinking is self-directed, self-disciplined, cocky-monitored, and self-corrective thinking.[2] It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem-solving abilities as well as a delivery to overcome native egocentrism[3] [iv] and sociocentrism.

History [edit]

The earliest records of critical thinking are the teachings of Socrates recorded past Plato. These included a role in Plato'due south early on dialogues, where Socrates engages with one or more than interlocutors on the issue of ethics such as question whether information technology was right for Socrates to escape from prison.[5] The philosopher considered and reflected on this question and came to the conclusion that escape violates all the things that he holds higher than himself: the laws of Athens and the guiding voice that Socrates claims to hear.[v]

Socrates established the fact that i cannot depend upon those in "authority" to accept sound knowledge and insight. He demonstrated that persons may have ability and loftier position and withal be deeply confused and irrational. Socrates maintained that for an individual to have a good life or to have one that is worth living, he must exist a critical questioner and possess an interrogative soul.[6] He established the importance of asking deep questions that probe profoundly into thinking before nosotros accept ideas as worthy of belief.

Socrates established the importance of "seeking testify, closely examining reasoning and assumptions, analyzing basic concepts, and tracing out implications not merely of what is said but of what is done as well".[7] His method of questioning is at present known as "Socratic questioning" and is the best known disquisitional thinking educational activity strategy. In his manner of questioning, Socrates highlighted the need for thinking for clarity and logical consistency. He asked people questions to reveal their irrational thinking or lack of reliable noesis. Socrates demonstrated that having authority does not ensure accurate knowledge. He established the method of questioning beliefs, closely inspecting assumptions and relying on show and sound rationale. Plato recorded Socrates' teachings and carried on the tradition of critical thinking. Aristotle and subsequent Greek skeptics refined Socrates' teachings, using systematic thinking and asking questions to ascertain the true nature of reality beyond the fashion things announced from a glance.[8]

Socrates set the calendar for the tradition of disquisitional thinking, namely, to reflectively question mutual behavior and explanations, carefully distinguishing beliefs that are reasonable and logical from those that—however highly-seasoned to our native egocentrism, however much they serve our vested interests, still comfortable or comforting they may be—lack adequate testify or rational foundation to warrant belief.

Critical thinking was described by Richard W. Paul every bit a movement in ii waves (1994).[9] The "first wave" of critical thinking is often referred to as a 'critical analysis' that is clear, rational thinking involving critique. Its details vary amongst those who define it. Co-ordinate to Barry Yard. Beyer (1995), disquisitional thinking means making clear, reasoned judgments. During the process of critical thinking, ideas should be reasoned, well idea out, and judged.[10] The U.S. National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking[xi] defines critical thinking equally the "intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or advice, as a guide to conventionalities and action."[12]

Etymology and origin of critical thinking [edit]

In the term critical thinking, the discussion critical, (Grk. κριτικός = kritikos = "critic") derives from the give-and-take critic and implies a critique; it identifies the intellectual capacity and the means "of judging", "of sentence", "for judging", and of beingness "able to discern".[thirteen] The intellectual roots of disquisitional[14] thinking are equally aboriginal as its etymology, traceable, ultimately, to the didactics practise and vision of Socrates[xv] 2,500 years ago who discovered past a method of probing questioning that people could not rationally justify their confident claims to knowledge.

Definitions [edit]

Traditionally, disquisitional thinking has been variously defined as follows:

  • "The intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating data gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, every bit a guide to belief and action."[16]
  • "Disciplined thinking that is clear, rational, open-minded, and informed by bear witness"[17]
  • "Purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, besides as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based"[18]
  • "Includes a commitment to using reason in the conception of our beliefs"[19]
  • The skill and propensity to engage in an activity with reflective scepticism (McPeck, 1981)[20]
  • Thinking about i'due south thinking in a manner designed to organize and clarify, raise the efficiency of, and recognize errors and biases in one's own thinking. Critical thinking is not 'hard' thinking nor is it directed at solving problems (other than 'improving' one's own thinking). Disquisitional thinking is inwards-directed with the intent of maximizing the rationality of the thinker. 1 does not use critical thinking to solve problems—one uses critical thinking to improve one's process of thinking.[21]
  • "An appraisement based on careful belittling evaluation"[22]
  • "Critical thinking is a type of thinking blueprint that requires people to exist reflective, and pay attention to controlling which guides their beliefs and actions. Critical thinking allows people to deduct with more than logic, to process sophisticated information and await at various sides of an issue so they tin can produce more solid conclusions."[23]
  • Critical thinking has 7 critical features: existence inquisitive and curious, being open-minded to dissimilar sides, being able to think systematically, being belittling, existence persistent to truth, being confident about critical thinking itself, and lastly, being mature.[24]
  • Although critical thinking could be divers in several dissimilar ways, there is a general agreement in its key component—the desire to reach for a satisfactory result, and this should be achieved by rational thinking and consequence-driven way. Halpern thinks that critical thinking firstly involves learned abilities such as trouble-solving, calculation and successful probability application. It also includes a trend to engage the thinking process. In recent times, Stanovich believed that modernistic IQ testing could hardly measure the ability of critical thinking.[25]
  • "Critical thinking is essentially a questioning, challenging arroyo to knowledge and perceived wisdom. It involves ideas and information from an objective position and then questioning this data in the light of our ain values, attitudes and personal philosophy."[26]

Contemporary critical thinking scholars take expanded these traditional definitions to include qualities, concepts, and processes such equally creativity, imagination, discovery, reflection, empathy, connecting knowing, feminist theory, subjectivity, ambiguity, and inconclusiveness. Some definitions of disquisitional thinking exclude these subjective practices.[27] [16]

  1. According to Ennis, "Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined procedure of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action."[28] This definition Ennis provided is highly agreed by Harvey Siegel,[29] Peter Facione,[24] and Deanna Kuhn.[30]
  2. According to Ennis' definition, critical thinking requires a lot of attending and brain function. When a critical thinking approach is applied to teaching, it helps the student'south brain function better and understand texts differently.
  3. Unlike fields of study may require different types of critical thinking. Critical thinking provides more angles and perspectives upon the same material.

Logic and rationality [edit]

The study of logical argumentation is relevant to the study of critical thinking. Logic is concerned with the analysis of arguments, including the appraisal of their correctness or incorrectness.[31] In the field of epistemology, critical thinking is considered to be logically correct thinking, which allows for differentiation betwixt logically truthful and logically false statements.[32]

In "Offset wave" logical thinking, the thinker is removed from the railroad train of idea, and the assay of connections between concepts or points in thought is ostensibly complimentary of any bias. In his essay Beyond Logicism in Critical Thinking Kerry S. Walters describes this ideology thus: "A logistic approach to critical thinking conveys the bulletin to students that thinking is legitimate merely when it conforms to the procedures of informal (and, to a bottom extent, formal) logic and that the good thinker necessarily aims for styles of examination and appraisal that are analytical, abstruse, universal, and objective. This model of thinking has become so entrenched in conventional bookish wisdom that many educators accept information technology as canon".[33] Such principles are concomitant with the increasing dependence on a quantitative understanding of the world.[ citation needed ]

In the 'second wave' of disquisitional thinking, authors consciously moved away from the logocentric way of critical thinking characteristic of the 'first wave'. Although many scholars began to take a less exclusive view of what constitutes critical thinking, rationality and logic remain widely accepted every bit essential bases for critical thinking. Walters argues that exclusive logicism in the get-go wave sense is based on "the unwarranted supposition that good thinking is reducible to logical thinking".[33]

Deduction, abduction and consecration [edit]

At that place are three types of logical reasoning. Informally, two kinds of logical reasoning tin can be distinguished in add-on to formal deduction, which are consecration and abduction.

Deduction [edit]

  • Deduction is the conclusion drawn from the structure of an argument's premises, past use of rules of inference formally those of propositional calculus. For example: Ten is human and all humans have a face, and then X has a confront.

Induction [edit]

Abduction [edit]

  • Abduction is cartoon a conclusion using a heuristic that is probable, but non inevitable given some foreknowledge. For instance: I observe sheep in a field, and they appear white from my viewing angle, then sheep are white. Contrast with the deductive statement: Some sheep are white on at least one side.

Disquisitional thinking and rationality [edit]

Kerry S. Walters, an emeritus philosophy professor from Gettysburg College, argues that rationality demands more than just logical or traditional methods of problem solving and analysis or what he calls the "calculus of justification" but also considers "cognitive acts such as imagination, conceptual creativity, intuition and insight" (p. 63). These "functions" are focused on discovery, on more abstract processes instead of linear, rules-based approaches to trouble-solving. The linear and non-sequential mind must both exist engaged in the rational mind.[33]

The power to critically analyze an argument—to dissect structure and components, thesis and reasons—is essential. But so is the power to exist flexible and consider non-traditional alternatives and perspectives. These complementary functions are what allow for critical thinking to exist a practice encompassing imagination and intuition in cooperation with traditional modes of deductive inquiry.[33]

Functions [edit]

The listing of core critical thinking skills includes observation, interpretation, analysis, inference, evaluation, caption, and metacognition. According to Reynolds (2011), an individual or grouping engaged in a potent style of critical thinking gives due consideration to institute for instance:[34]

  • Prove through reality
  • Context skills to isolate the problem from context
  • Relevant criteria for making the judgment well
  • Applicable methods or techniques for forming the judgment
  • Applicative theoretical constructs for understanding the trouble and the question at mitt

In addition to possessing strong disquisitional-thinking skills, ane must exist disposed to engage bug and decisions using those skills. Critical thinking employs non only logic merely broad intellectual criteria such as clarity, credibility, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, significance, and fairness.[35]

Disquisitional thinking calls for the ability to:

  • Recognize problems, to find workable means for meeting those problems
  • Empathise the importance of prioritization and order of precedence in problem-solving
  • Gather and marshal pertinent (relevant) information
  • Recognize unstated assumptions and values
  • Encompass and utilize language with accurateness, clarity, and discernment
  • Interpret data, to appraise prove and evaluate arguments
  • Recognize the existence (or non-beingness) of logical relationships betwixt propositions
  • Depict warranted conclusions and generalizations
  • Put to test the conclusions and generalizations at which ane arrives
  • Reconstruct one'south patterns of behavior on the basis of wider experience
  • Render accurate judgments about specific things and qualities in everyday life

In sum:

"A persistent attempt to examine whatsoever belief or supposed form of knowledge in the lite of the evidence that supports or refutes information technology and the farther conclusions to which information technology tends."[36]

Habits or traits of the listen [edit]

The habits of listen that narrate a person strongly disposed toward critical thinking include a desire to follow reason and evidence wherever they may lead, a systematic approach to trouble solving, inquisitiveness, even-handedness, and confidence in reasoning.[37]

According to a definition analysis past Kompf & Bond (2001), critical thinking involves problem solving, decision making, metacognition,[38] rationality, rational thinking, reasoning, knowledge, intelligence and also a moral component such as reflective thinking. Critical thinkers therefore need to have reached a level of maturity in their evolution, possess a certain attitude as well as a set up of taught skills.

There is a postulation past some writers that the tendencies from habits of heed should be thought equally virtues to demonstrate the characteristics of a critical thinker.[39] These intellectual virtues are ethical qualities that encourage motivation to call back in detail ways towards specific circumstances. However, these virtues have also been criticized by skeptics, who fence that there is defective evidence for this specific mental footing that are causative to critical thinking.[40]

Enquiry in critical thinking [edit]

Edward M. Glaser proposed that the ability to think critically involves three elements:[36]

  1. An attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come inside the range of one's experiences
  2. Knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning
  3. Some skill in applying those methods.

Educational programs aimed at developing critical thinking in children and developed learners, individually or in group problem solving and determination making contexts, continue to accost these aforementioned 3 key elements.

The Critical Thinking project at Human Scientific discipline Lab, London, is involved in the scientific study of all major educational systems in prevalence today to appraise how the systems are working to promote or impede critical thinking.[41]

Contemporary cognitive psychology regards human being reasoning as a complex procedure that is both reactive and reflective.[42] This presents a trouble which is detailed as a division of a critical heed in juxtaposition to sensory data and memory.

The psychological theory disposes of the accented nature of the rational mind, in reference to conditions, abstract issues and discursive limitations. Where the relationship betwixt disquisitional thinking skills and critical thinking dispositions is an empirical question, the power to attain causal domination exists, for which Socrates was known to be largely tending against as the practice of Sophistry. Bookkeeping for a measure of "critical thinking dispositions" is the California Measure of Mental Motivation[43] and the California Critical Thinking Dispositions Inventory.[44] The Critical Thinking Toolkit is an alternative measure that examines pupil beliefs and attitudes about disquisitional thinking[45]

Education [edit]

John Dewey is 1 of many educational leaders who recognized that a curriculum aimed at building thinking skills would benefit the private learner, the community, and the entire democracy.[46]

Critical thinking is meaning in the learning procedure of internalization, in the construction of basic ideas, principles, and theories inherent in content. And critical thinking is significant in the learning process of application, whereby those ideas, principles, and theories are implemented effectively every bit they go relevant in learners' lives.[ commendation needed ]

Each bailiwick adapts its use of disquisitional thinking concepts and principles. The core concepts are e'er there, just they are embedded in discipline-specific content.[ commendation needed ] For students to learn content, intellectual engagement is crucial. All students must exercise their ain thinking, their own construction of knowledge. Skilful teachers recognize this and therefore focus on the questions, readings, activities that stimulate the mind to take ownership of key concepts and principles underlying the subject.[ citation needed ]

Historically, the didactics of critical thinking focused only on logical procedures such as formal and informal logic.[ citation needed ] This emphasized to students that good thinking is equivalent to logical thinking. However, a second wave of critical thinking, urges educators to value conventional techniques, meanwhile expanding what it ways to be a disquisitional thinker. In 1994, Kerry Walters[47] compiled a conglomeration of sources surpassing this logical restriction to include many dissimilar authors' research regarding connected knowing, empathy, gender-sensitive ethics, collaboration, earth views, intellectual autonomy, morality and enlightenment. These concepts invite students to incorporate their own perspectives and experiences into their thinking.

In the English and Welsh school systems, Critical Thinking is offered as a field of study that 16- to 18-yr-olds tin can take as an A-Level. Under the OCR examination lath, students can sit two examination papers for the As: "Credibility of Prove" and "Assessing and Developing Argument". The full Advanced GCE is now available: in add-on to the two AS units, candidates sit the 2 papers "Resolution of Dilemmas" and "Disquisitional Reasoning". The A-level tests candidates on their ability to think critically nearly, and analyze, arguments on their deductive or inductive validity, as well equally producing their own arguments. Information technology as well tests their ability to analyze sure related topics such every bit credibility and ethical decision-making. However, due to its comparative lack of subject content, many universities practice not accept it as a chief A-level for admissions.[48] All the same, the As is often useful in developing reasoning skills, and the total Advanced GCE is useful for degree courses in politics, philosophy, history or theology, providing the skills required for critical assay that are useful, for instance, in biblical study.

There used to also be an Avant-garde Extension Honor offered in Disquisitional Thinking in the Great britain, open to any A-level pupil regardless of whether they have the Critical Thinking A-level. Cambridge International Examinations have an A-level in Thinking Skills.[49]

From 2008, Assessment and Qualifications Alliance has also been offering an A-level Critical Thinking specification.[50] OCR exam board have likewise modified theirs for 2008. Many examinations for university entrance set past universities, on top of A-level examinations, too include a disquisitional thinking component, such as the LNAT, the UKCAT, the BioMedical Admissions Exam and the Thinking Skills Cess.

In Qatar, critical thinking was offered by AL-Bairaq—an outreach, non-traditional educational program that targets high school students and focuses on a curriculum based on STEM fields. The thought backside AL-Bairaq is to offer loftier schoolhouse students the opportunity to connect with the enquiry surroundings in the Centre for Avant-garde Materials (CAM) at Qatar University. Kinesthesia members railroad train and mentor the students and help develop and enhance their critical thinking, trouble-solving, and teamwork skills.[51] [ failed verification ]

Effectiveness [edit]

In 1995, a meta-analysis of the literature on didactics effectiveness in higher education was undertaken.[52] The study noted concerns from higher educational activity, politicians, and business that higher teaching was declining to see society's requirements for well-educated citizens. Information technology concluded that although faculty may aspire to develop students' thinking skills, in practice they take tended to aim at facts and concepts utilizing lowest levels of cognition, rather than developing intellect or values.

In a more recent meta-analysis, researchers reviewed 341 quasi- or true-experimental studies, all of which used some form of standardized disquisitional thinking measure to assess the effect variable.[53] The authors describe the various methodological approaches and attempt to categorize the differing cess tools, which include standardized tests (and 2nd-source measures), tests developed by teachers, tests developed by researchers, and tests developed past teachers who also serve the part every bit the researcher. The results emphasized the need for exposing students to existent-earth problems and the importance of encouraging open dialogue inside a supportive environment. Effective strategies for teaching critical thinking are thought to be possible in a wide variety of educational settings.[53] One attempt to assess the humanities' role in teaching critical thinking and reducing belief in pseudoscientific claims was fabricated at N Carolina Country University. Some success was noted and the researchers emphasized the value of the humanities in providing the skills to evaluate current events and qualitative data in context.[54]

Scott Lilienfeld notes that there is some evidence to suggest that basic disquisitional thinking skills might be successfully taught to children at a younger age than previously idea.[55]

Importance in academics [edit]

Critical thinking is an important element of all professional fields and bookish disciplines (by referencing their respective sets of permissible questions, evidence sources, criteria, etc.). Within the framework of scientific skepticism, the process of critical thinking involves the careful acquisition and interpretation of information and utilize of information technology to reach a well-justified conclusion. The concepts and principles of critical thinking tin can be applied to any context or case merely simply past reflecting upon the nature of that application. Critical thinking forms, therefore, a system of related, and overlapping, modes of thought such every bit anthropological thinking, sociological thinking, historical thinking, political thinking, psychological thinking, philosophical thinking, mathematical thinking, chemic thinking, biological thinking, ecological thinking, legal thinking, upstanding thinking, musical thinking, thinking like a painter, sculptor, engineer, business person, etc. In other words, though critical thinking principles are universal, their application to disciplines requires a procedure of reflective contextualization. Psychology offerings, for instance, have included courses such equally Critical Thinking about the Paranormal, in which students are subjected to a series of cold readings and tested on their belief of the "psychic", who is eventually announced to be a fake.[56]

Critical thinking is considered important in the academic fields for enabling one to analyze, evaluate, explain, and restructure thinking, thereby ensuring the human activity of thinking without imitation belief. Nonetheless, even with knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning, mistakes occur, and due to a thinker's inability to utilize the methodology consistently, and considering of overruling character traits such equally egocentrism. Disquisitional thinking includes identification of prejudice, bias, propaganda, self-deception, distortion, misinformation, etc.[57] Given research in cerebral psychology, some educators believe that schools should focus on educational activity their students critical thinking skills and tillage of intellectual traits.[58]

Critical thinking skills can be used to help nurses during the assessment procedure. Through the use of critical thinking, nurses can question, evaluate, and reconstruct the nursing care process past challenging the established theory and practise. Critical thinking skills tin can help nurses problem solve, reflect, and make a conclusive conclusion nigh the current situation they face up. Critical thinking creates "new possibilities for the evolution of the nursing knowledge".[59] Due to the sociocultural, environmental, and political problems that are affecting healthcare commitment, it would be helpful to embody new techniques in nursing. Nurses tin as well engage their disquisitional thinking skills through the Socratic method of dialogue and reflection. This practice standard is fifty-fifty part of some regulatory organizations such every bit the College of Nurses of Ontario'south Professional Standards for Standing Competencies (2006).[60] It requires nurses to appoint in Cogitating Practice and keep records of this continued professional development for possible review by the college.

Critical thinking is also considered important for human rights instruction for toleration. The Declaration of Principles on Tolerance adopted by UNESCO in 1995 affirms that "education for tolerance could aim at countering factors that atomic number 82 to fear and exclusion of others, and could help young people to develop capacities for contained sentence, critical thinking and ethical reasoning".[61]

Online advice [edit]

The appearance and rising popularity of online courses have prompted some to ask if estimator-mediated communication (CMC) promotes, hinders, or has no effect on the amount and quality of critical thinking in a grade (relative to face-to-face communication). There is some evidence to suggest a quaternary, more than nuanced possibility: that CMC may promote some aspects of critical thinking but hinder others. For example, Guiller et al. (2008)[62] found that, relative to contiguous discourse, online discourse featured more than justifications, while confront-to-confront discourse featured more than instances of students expanding on what others had said. The increase in justifications may be due to the asynchronous nature of online discussions, while the increase in expanding comments may be due to the spontaneity of 'real-time' discussion. Newman et al. (1995)[63] showed similar differential furnishings. They plant that while CMC boasted more of import statements and linking of ideas, it lacked novelty. The authors suggest that this may exist due to difficulties participating in a brainstorming-manner activity in an asynchronous environment. Rather, the asynchrony may promote users to put forth "considered, thought out contributions".

Researchers assessing critical thinking in online word forums often use a technique called Content Analysis,[63] [62] where the text of online soapbox (or the transcription of face-to-confront discourse) is systematically coded for different kinds of statements relating to disquisitional thinking. For example, a statement might exist coded as "Discuss ambiguities to clear them up" or "Welcoming outside knowledge" as positive indicators of critical thinking. Conversely, statements reflecting poor critical thinking may exist labeled as "Sticking to prejudice or assumptions" or "Squashing attempts to bring in exterior knowledge". The frequency of these codes in CMC and contiguous discourse can be compared to describe conclusions about the quality of critical thinking.

Searching for evidence of critical thinking in discourse has roots in a definition of critical thinking put forth by Kuhn (1991),[64] which emphasizes the social nature of give-and-take and knowledge structure. There is limited research on the role of social experience in disquisitional thinking development, but there is some evidence to suggest it is an important gene. For example, research has shown that iii- to 4-year-quondam children can discern, to some extent, the differential creditability[65] and expertise[66] of individuals. Farther show for the impact of social experience on the development of critical thinking skills comes from piece of work that plant that 6- to 7-year-olds from China take like levels of skepticism to 10- and 11-year-olds in the United States.[67] If the evolution of critical thinking skills was solely due to maturation, it is unlikely we would see such dramatic differences across cultures.

See also [edit]

  • Age of Enlightenment
  • Argument
  • Argumentation theory
  • Cerebral bias mitigation
  • Critic
  • Critical Thinking
  • Demarcation trouble
  • Dialectic
  • Disinformation
  • Freedom of thought
  • Freethought
  • Indoctrination
  • International Philosophy Olympiad
  • Logic
  • Logical reasoning
  • Outline of human intelligence – topic tree presenting the traits, capacities, models, and research fields of homo intelligence
  • Outline of thought – topic tree that identifies many types of thoughts, types of thinking, aspects of thought, related fields
  • Philosophy pedagogy
  • Sapere aude
  • Source criticism
  • Globe Philosophy Solar day

References [edit]

  1. ^ Edward M. Glaser. "Defining Critical Thinking". The International Center for the Assessment of College Order Thinking (ICAT, United states)/Critical Thinking Community. Retrieved 22 March 2017.
  2. ^ Clarke, John (2019). Critical Dialogues: Thinking Together in Turbulent Times. Bristol: Policy Press. p. six. ISBN978-1-4473-5097-2.
  3. ^ "Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development". www.telacommunications.com. Archived from the original on 9 May 2019. Retrieved iii Apr 2018.
  4. ^ "Information technology's a Fine Line Between Narcissism and Egocentrism". Psychology Today . Retrieved 3 April 2018.
  5. ^ a b Visser, Jan; Visser, Muriel (2019). Seeking Understanding: The Lifelong Pursuit to Build the Scientific Listen. Leiden: Brill. p. 233. ISBN978-90-04-41680-2.
  6. ^ Stanlick, Nancy A.; Strawser, Michael J. (2015). Asking Skilful Questions: Case Studies in Ethics and Critical Thinking. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. p. 6. ISBN978-one-58510-755-1.
  7. ^ Chiarini, Andrea; Found, Pauline; Rich, Nicholas (2015). Understanding the Lean Enterprise: Strategies, Methodologies, and Principles for a More Responsive Organization. Cham: Springer. p. 132. ISBN978-3-319-19994-8.
  8. ^ "A Cursory History of the Idea of Disquisitional Thinking". world wide web.criticalthinking.org . Retrieved 14 March 2018.
  9. ^ Walters, Kerry (1994). Re-Thinking Reason. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 181–198.
  10. ^ Elkins, James R. "The Critical Thinking Movement: Alternating Currents in One Teacher's Thinking". myweb.wvnet.edu. Archived from the original on 13 June 2018. Retrieved 23 March 2014.
  11. ^ "Critical Thinking Alphabetize Page".
  12. ^ "Defining Critical Thinking".
  13. ^ Brownish, Lesley. (ed.) The New Shorter Oxford English language Dictionary (1993) p. 551.
  14. ^ "Lexical Investigations: Critical Thinking – Everything Afterwards Z by Dictionary.com". Everything Later Z by Dictionary.com. 25 June 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
  15. ^ "Socrates". Biography. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved three April 2018.
  16. ^ a b Scriven, Michael; Paul, Richard (1987). "Disquisitional Thinking as Divers by the National Council for Excellence in Disquisitional Thinking". www.criticalthinking.org. The Foundation for Critical Thinking. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
  17. ^ "critical thinking". Dictionary.com Entire (Online). n.d. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
  18. ^ Facione, Peter A. (2011). "Critical Thinking: What Information technology is and Why It Counts". insightassessment.com. p. 26. Archived from the original on 29 July 2013. Retrieved 4 August 2012.
  19. ^ Mulnix, J. W. (2010). "Thinking critically about disquisitional thinking". Educational Philosophy and Theory. 44 (v): 471. doi:ten.1111/j.1469-5812.2010.00673.x. S2CID 145168346.
  20. ^ Nieto, Ana Grand.; Saiz, Carlos (2010). "Critical Thinking: A Question of Aptitude and Attitude?". Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines. Philosophy Documentation Center. 25 (two): 19–26. doi:10.5840/inquiryctnews20102524. ISSN 1093-1082.
  21. ^ Carmichael, Kirby; letter to Olivetti, Laguna Salada Union Schoolhouse Commune, May 1997.
  22. ^ "critical assay". TheFreeDictionary.com . Retrieved 30 November 2016.
  23. ^ "Volume Reviews and Notes : Teaching Thinking Skills: Theory and Practise. Joan Baron and Robert Sternberg. 1987. W.H. Freeman, & Co., New York. 275 pages. Index. ISBN 0-7167-1791-iii. Paperback". Bulletin of Scientific discipline, Engineering & Gild. 8 (ane): 101. February 1988. doi:ten.1177/0270467688008001113. ISSN 0270-4676. S2CID 220913799.
  24. ^ a b Facione, Peter A.; Facione, Noreen C. (March 1993). "Profiling critical thinking dispositions". Cess Update. 5 (ii): one–4. doi:10.1002/au.3650050202. ISSN 1041-6099.
  25. ^ Halpern, Diane F. (2006), "The Nature and Nurture of Critical Thinking", in Sternberg, Robert J; Roediger Iii, Henry L; Halpern, Diane F (eds.), Critical Thinking in Psychology, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–fourteen, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511804632.002, ISBN9780511804632
  26. ^ Judge, Brenda; McCreery, Elaine; Jones, Patrick (2009). Disquisitional Thinking Skills for Pedagogy Students. SAGE. p. 9. ISBN978-1-84445-556-0.
  27. ^ Walters, Kerry (1994). Re-Thinking Reason. Albany: Country Academy of New York Press.
  28. ^ Ennis, Robert H. (2015), "Disquisitional Thinking", The Palgrave Handbook of Disquisitional Thinking in Higher Education, Palgrave Macmillan, doi:10.1057/9781137378057.0005, ISBN9781137378057
  29. ^ Siegel, Harvey (27 September 2013). Educating Reason. doi:10.4324/9781315001722. ISBN9781315001722.
  30. ^ Kuhn, Deanna (January 2015). "Thinking Together and Solitary". Educational Researcher. 44 (1): 46–53. doi:10.3102/0013189x15569530. ISSN 0013-189X. S2CID 145335117.
  31. ^ Salmon, Merrilee H. (2013). Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking, Sixth Edition. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. p. 12. ISBN978-1-133-04975-three.
  32. ^ Sherrie, Wisdom (2015). Handbook of Research on Advancing Critical Thinking in Higher Education. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. p. 294. ISBN978-1-4666-8412-6.
  33. ^ a b c d Kerry S. Walters (1994). Re-Thinking Reason: New Perspectives in Critical Thinking. SUNY Press. ISBN978-0-7914-2095-9.
  34. ^ Reynolds, Martin (2011). "Disquisitional thinking and systems thinking: towards a critical literacy for systems thinking in practice". In: Horvath, Chrii. and Forte, James M. eds. Critical Thinking. New York: Nova Scientific discipline Publishers, pp. 37–68.[ ISBN missing ]
  35. ^ Jones, Elizabeth A. (1995). National Assessment of College Student Learning: Identifying College Graduates' Essential Skills in Writing, Speech and Listening, and Disquisitional Thinking. Final Project Report (NCES-95-001) (PDF). National Eye on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Cess, University Park, PA.; Part of Educational Research and Improvement (ED), U.South. Regime Press Office, Superintendent of Documents, Washington, DC PUB TYPE – Reports Enquiry/Technical (143). pp. 14–15. ISBN978-0-16-048051-5 . Retrieved 24 February 2016.
  36. ^ a b Edward M. Glaser (1941). An Experiment in the Evolution of Critical Thinking. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University. ISBN978-0-404-55843-vii. [ page needed ]
  37. ^ The National Assessment of Higher Educatee Learning: Identification of the Skills to be Taught, Learned, and Assessed, NCES 94–286, US Dept of Didactics, Addison Greenwood (Ed), Sal Carrallo (PI). See also, Disquisitional thinking: A statement of good consensus for purposes of educational assessment and education. ERIC Document No. ED 315–423
  38. ^ "Didactics Metacognition". Metacognition . Retrieved three April 2018.
  39. ^ Facione, Peter A.; Sánchez, Carol A.; Facione, Noreen C.; Gainen, Joanne (1995). "The Disposition Toward Critical Thinking". The Periodical of Full general Education. 44 (i): 1–25. ISSN 0021-3667. JSTOR 27797240.
  40. ^ Bailin, Sharon; Case, Roland; Coombs, Jerrold R.; Daniels, Leroi B. (May 1999). "Mutual misconceptions of critical thinking". Journal of Curriculum Studies. 31 (3): 269–283. doi:10.1080/002202799183124. ISSN 0022-0272.
  41. ^ "Research at Human Science Lab". Human Science Lab. Retrieved five March 2017.
  42. ^ Solomon, S.A. (2002) "Two Systems of Reasoning", in Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment, Govitch, Griffin, Kahneman (Eds), Cambridge University Printing. ISBN 978-0-521-79679-8; Thinking and Reasoning in Human being Decision Making: The Method of Argument and Heuristic Analysis, Facione and Facione, 2007, California Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-891557-58-3
  43. ^ Research on Sociocultural Influences on Motivation and Learning, p. 46
  44. ^ Walsh, Catherine, M. (2007). "California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory: Further Factor Analytic Examination". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 104 (1): 141–151. doi:ten.2466/pms.104.ane.141-151. PMID 17450973. S2CID 44863676.
  45. ^ Stupple, Eastward. J. N., Maratos, F. A., Elander, J., Hunt, T. Eastward., Cheung, K. Y., & Aubeeluck, A. Five. (2017). "Development of the Disquisitional Thinking Toolkit (CriTT): A mensurate of student attitudes and beliefs about critical thinking". Thinking Skills and Creativity, 23, 91–100.
  46. ^ Dewey, John. (1910). How we think. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath & Co.[ page needed ]
  47. ^ Walters, Kerry. (1994). Re-Thinking Reason. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.[ ISBN missing ] [ page needed ]
  48. ^ Critical Thinking FAQs from Oxford Cambridge and RSA Examinations Archived 11 Apr 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  49. ^ "Cambridge International As and A Level subjects".
  50. ^ "New GCEs for 2008", Assessment and Qualifications Alliance Archived 17 February 2008 at the Wayback Car
  51. ^ "Welcome to Al-Bairaq World". Archived from the original on nineteen April 2014. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
  52. ^ Panthera leo Gardiner, Redesigning College Education: Producing Dramatic Gains in Student Learning, in conjunction with: ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education, 1995
  53. ^ a b Abrami, P. C., Bernard, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Waddington, D. I., Wade, C. A., & Persson, T. (2014). "Strategies for Teaching Students to Think Critically: A Meta-Analysis". Review of Educational Inquiry, one–40
  54. ^ Frazier, Kendrick (2017). "Humanities, Besides: In New Study, History Courses in Critical Thinking Reduce Pseudoscientific Beliefs". Skeptical Inquirer. 41 (4): 11.
  55. ^ Lilienfeld, Scott (2017). "Instruction Skepticism: How Early Can We Begin?". Skeptical Inquirer. 41 (5): thirty–31. Archived from the original on 10 August 2018.
  56. ^ Baugher, Bob; Haldeman, Philip (July–Baronial 2019). "Didactics College Students Critical Thinking Skills past Posing as a 'Registered Psychic'". Skeptical Inquirer. Vol. 43, no. 4. Center for Inquiry. pp. 50–52.
  57. ^ Lau, Joe; Chan, Jonathan. "[F08] Cognitive biases". Disquisitional thinking web . Retrieved 1 Feb 2016.
  58. ^ "Disquisitional Thinking, Moral Integrity and Citizenship". Criticalthinking.org . Retrieved i February 2016.
  59. ^ Boychuk Duchscher, Judy East. (1999). "Communicable the wave: agreement the concept of disquisitional thinking". Journal of Avant-garde Nursing. 29 (3): 577–583. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.1999.00925.x. PMID 28796334.
  60. ^ College of Nurses of Ontario – Professional Standards for Continuing Competencies (2006) Archived 12 September 2014 at the Wayback Auto
  61. ^ "International Day for Tolerance . Announcement of Principles on Tolerance, Article 4, 3". UNESCO . Retrieved 24 Feb 2016.
  62. ^ a b Guiller, Jane; Durndell, Alan; Ross, Anne (2008). "Peer interaction and disquisitional thinking: Contiguous or online discussion?". Learning and Instruction. 18 (ii): 187–200. doi:ten.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.03.001.
  63. ^ a b Newman, D. R.; Webb, Brian; Cochrane, Clive (1995). "A content analysis method to measure disquisitional thinking in face-to-face and reckoner-supported group learning". Interpersonal Computing and Applied science. 3 (September 1993): 56–77. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04569.10. PMID 18352969.
  64. ^ Kuhn, D (1991). The skills of statement. Cambridge, Uk: Cambridge University Press.
  65. ^ Koenig, M A; Harris, P L (2005). "Preschoolers mistrust ignorant and inaccurate speakers". Child Evolution. 76 (vi): 1261–1277. CiteSeerXten.i.1.501.253. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00849.ten. PMID 16274439.
  66. ^ Lutz, D J; Keil, F C (2002). "Early understanding of the partitioning of cerebral labor". Child Development. 73 (4): 1073–1084. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00458. PMID 12146734.
  67. ^ Heyman, G D; Fu, G; Lee, Thousand (2007). "Evaluating claims peoplemake virtually themselves: The evolution of skepticism". Child Development. 78 (two): 367–375. doi:x.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01003.x. PMC2570105. PMID 17381778.

Further reading [edit]

Books [edit]

  • Cederblom, J B.; Paulsen, David (2012). Disquisitional Reasoning: Agreement and Criticizing Arguments and Theories (7th ed.). Andover, Hampshire, Uk: Cengage Learning. ISBN978-0495808787.
  • Damer, T. Edward. (2005) Attacking Faulty Reasoning, 6th Edition, Wadsworth. ISBN 0-534-60516-8
  • Dauer, Francis Watanabe. Critical Thinking: An Introduction to Reasoning, 1989, ISBN 978-0-xix-504884-i
  • Fisher, Alec and Scriven, Michael. (1997) Critical Thinking: Its Definition and Cess, Center for Research in Critical Thinking (UK) / Edgepress (United states of america). ISBN 0-9531796-0-5
  • Hamby, B.Westward. (2007) The Philosophy of Annihilation: Critical Thinking in Context. Kendall Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque Iowa. ISBN 978-0-7575-4724-9
  • Vincent F. Hendricks. (2005) Thought 2 Talk: A Crash Course in Reflection and Expression, New York: Automatic Press / VIP. ISBN 87-991013-seven-viii
  • Levitin, Daniel (2017). A Field Guide to Lies and Statistics. Viking. ISBN978-0241239995. (a.k.a. Weaponized Lies: How to Call up Critically in the Post-Truth Era)
  • Moore, Brooke Noel and Parker, Richard. (2012) Critical Thinking. 10th ed. Published by McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-803828-6.
  • Paul, Richard. (1995) Critical Thinking: How to Set Students for a Rapidly Changing World. 4th ed. Foundation for Critical Thinking. ISBN 0-944583-09-1.
  • Paul, Richard and Elder, Linda. (2006) Critical Thinking Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your Life, New Bailiwick of jersey: Prentice Hall Publishing. ISBN 0-xiii-114962-8.
  • Sagan, Carl. (1995) The Demon-Haunted Globe: Science As a Candle in the Dark. Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-40946-9
  • Theodore Schick & Lewis Vaughn "How to Retrieve About Weird Things: Critical Thinking for a New Age" (2010) ISBN 0-7674-2048-9
  • van den Brink-Budgen, R (2010) Critical Thinking for Students, How To Books. ISBN 978-1-84528-386-5
  • Whyte, J. (2003) Bad Thoughts – A Guide to Clear Thinking, Corvo. ISBN 0-9543255-3-2.
  • David Carl Wilson (2020) A Guide to Skillful Reasoning: Cultivating Intellectual Virtues (2nd edition) Academy of Minnesota Libraries Ebook ISBN 978-1-946135-66-7 Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial 4.0 International License, at https://open.lib.umn.edu/goodreasoning/
  • Zeigarnik, B.V. (1927). On finished and unfinished tasks. In English translation Edited by Willis D. Ellis; with an introduction past Kurt Koffka. (1997). A source book of gestalt psychology xiv, 403 p. : ill.; 22 cmHighland, N.Y: Gestalt Journal Press. "This Gestalt Journal Press edition is a verbatim reprint of the book as originally published in 1938" – T.p. verso. ISBN 9780939266302. OCLC 38755142

Articles [edit]

  • Butler, Heather; Christopher Pentoney; Mabelle P. Bong (September 2017). "Predicting real-earth outcomes: Disquisitional thinking ability is a better predictor of life decisions than intelligence". Thinking Skills and Creativity. 25: 38–46. doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2017.06.005. - Encounter at ResearchGate
  • Facione, P. 2007. Critical Thinking: What Information technology Is and Why It Counts – 2007 Update
  • Kompf, M., & Bond, R. (2001). Critical reflection in adult education. In T. Barer-Stein & M. Kompf(Eds.), The craft of teaching adults (pp. 21–38). Toronto, ON: Irwin.
  • McPeck, J. (1992). Thoughts on subject specificity. In S. Norris (Ed.), The generalizability of critical thinking (pp. 198–205). New York: Teachers College Press.
  • Mulnix, J. W. (2010). "Thinking critically about critical thinking". Educational Philosophy and Theory. 44 (5): 464–479. doi:10.1111/j.1469-5812.2010.00673.x. S2CID 145168346.
  • Paul, R (1982). "Educational activity critical thinking in the strong sense: A focus on self-deception, earth views and a dialectical mode of analysis". Informal Logic Newsletter. 4 (2): 2–seven.
  • Pavlidis, Periklis (2010). "Critical Thinking as Dialectics: a Hegelian–Marxist Approach". Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies. 8 (two).
  • Twardy, Charles R. (2003) Argument Maps Ameliorate Critical Thinking. Educational activity Philosophy 27:2 June 2004.

External links [edit]

  • "Disquisitional Thinking". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  • Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "Critical Thinking". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  • Zalta, Edward Due north. (ed.). "Breezy logic". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  • Critical thinking at PhilPapers
  • Disquisitional thinking at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
  • Critical thinking at Curlie
  • Critical Thinking: What Is It Skillful for? (In Fact, What Is It?) past Howard Gabennesch, Skeptical Inquirer mag.
  • Glossary of Critical Thinking Terms
  • Critical Thinking Web

brennanporang.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_thinking

0 Response to "according to the critical thinking model, what is the first step in analyzing an issue?"

Post a Comment

Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)

Iklan Atas Artikel

Iklan Tengah Artikel 1

Iklan Tengah Artikel 2

Iklan Bawah Artikel